Unit Nine小编：论说’论说要素？范例
Argumentation 论说
Argumentation is the art of influencing others, through the medium of reasoned discourse, to believe or act as we wish them to believe or act.
J.M. O’Neill, C. Laycock, and R.L. Scale
Basics for Argumentation 论说要素
Do you know？
范例1
Importance of English
There are thousands of languages in the world. Each language seems to be the most important to those who speak it as their native language. This is not strange at all, seeing that it is the language they learned at their mothers’ knees and may be the only language many of them will ever know all their lives. However, the importance of a language is often judged according to the following things: the number of native speakers of the language, the width of the distribution of the speakers, the cultural, economic and political influence of the language speakers.
There can be no doubt now that English is one of the world’s most widely used languages. English is spoken as a native language by nearly 300 million people in the United States, Britain, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, some Caribbean countries, and South Africa. As a second language, English is often necessary for official business, education, information and other activities in a great number of countries such as India, Pakistan, Nigeria, Singapore, and the Philippines. It is one of the few “working” languages of the United Nations and is more frequently used than the others.
It is said that English has become the language of international trade and transport. Most planes travelling from one country to another use it to talk with airports. All ships sailing on the oceans call for help on the radio in it. It has been estimated that 60 percent of the world’s radio broadcasts and 70 percent of the world’s mail are in English. At international sports meets, at meetings of scientists from different countries, and at talks of writers and artists from every corners of the earth, English is the most commonly used and most widely understood language.
English has, in fact, become the language of international cooperation in science and technology. The most advanced results in space, nuclear and computer research are published in it. A scientist who speaks and writes in English is in closer contact with the scientists in other countries than one who doesn’t.
To conclude, English has become an important international language.
范例分析
论点 (Thesis statement): There can be no doubt now that English is one of the world’s most widely used languages.
论据(Evidence): statistics
论证方法(Pattern): enumeration; deduction
在上面段落中，第一段是引子，引出主题。第二段开头提出论点，然后用大量的数字为依据进行论证，说明英语作为母语和第二语言的使用之广泛。接着，作者又用列举法指明英语在贸易、交通、和科学领域的重要性，准确地阐明了论据与论点之间的内在联系。最后，用一句话总结全文，与主题呼应。
范例2
An argument against the Anna Todd Jennings scholarship
Recently, a dispute has arisen over the “Caucasian-restricted” Ann Todd Jennings scholarship. Ann Jennings died in 1955, and her will established a trust that granted a scholarship of up to $15,000 for a deserving student. Unfortunately, Jennings, who had certain racist views, limited her scholarship to “Caucasian students.” After much debate with family and friends. I, a white, well-qualified, and definitely deserving student, have decided not to apply for the scholarship. It is my view that despite arguments to the contrary, applying for the Anna Todd Jennings scholarship furthers the racist ideas that were held by its founder.
Most people would agree that racism in any form is an evil that should be opposed. The Anna Todd Jennings scholarship is a subtle but nonetheless dangerous expression of racism. It explicitly discriminates against African-Americans, Asians, Latinos, Native Americans, and others. By providing a scholarship for whites only, Anna Jennings frustrates the aspirations of groups who until recently had been virtually kept out of the educational mainstream. On this basis alone, students should refuse to apply and should actively work to encourage the school to challenge the racist provisions of Anna Todd Jennings’will. Such challenges have been upheld by the courts: the striking down of a similar clause in the will of the eighteenth-century financier Stephen Girard is just one example.
The school itself must share some blame in this case. Students who applied for the Anna Todd Jennings scholarship were unaware of its restrictions. The director of the financial aid office has acknowledged that he knew about the racial restrictions of the scholarship but thought that students should have the right to apply anyway. In addition, the materials distributed by the financial aid office gave no indication that the award was limited to Caucasians. Students were required to fill out forms, submit financial statements, and forward transcripts. In addition to this material, all students were told to attach a recent photograph to their application. Little did the applicants know that the sole purpose of this innocuous little picture was to distinguish whites from nonwhites. By keeping secret the restrictions of the scholarship, the school has put students, most of whom are not racists, in the position of unwittingly endorsing Anna Jennings’s racism. Thus, both the school and the unsuspecting students have been in collusion with the administrators of the Anna Todd Jennings trust.
The problem facing students is how best to deal with the generosity of a racist. A recent edition of the school paper contained several letters saying that students should accept Anna Jennings’ scholarship money. One student said, “if we do not take that money and use our education to topple the barriers of prejudice, we are giving the money to those who will use the money in the opposite fashion.” This argument, although attractive, is flawed. If an individual accepts a scholarship with racial restrictions, then he or she is actually endorsing the principles behind it. If a student does not want to appear to endorse racism, then he or she should reject the scholarship, even if this action causes hardship or gives adversaries a momentary advantage. To do otherwise is to further the cause of the individual who set up the scholarship. The best way to register a protest is to work to change the requirement for the scholarship and to encourage others not to apply as long as the racial restrictions exist.
Another student letter made the point that a number of other restricted scholarships are available at the school and no one seems to question them. For example, one is for the children of veterans, another is for women, and yet another is earmarked for African-Americans. Even though these scholarships have restrictions, to say that all restrictions are the same is to make a hasty generalization. Women, African-Americans, and the children of veterans are groups who deserve special treatment. Both women and African-Americans have been discriminated against for years, and many educational opportunities have been denied them. Earmarking scholarships for them is simply a means of restoring some measure of equality. The children of veterans have been singled out because their parents have rendered an extraordinary service to their country. Whites, however, do not fall into either of these categories. Special treatment for them is based solely on race and has nothing to do with any objective standard of need or merit.
I hope that by refusing to apply for the Anna Todd Jennings scholarship, I have encouraged other students to think about the issues involved in their own decisions. All of us have a responsibility to ourselves and to society. If we truly believe that racism in all its forms is evil, then we have to make a choice between sacrifice and hypocrisy. Faced with these options, our decision should be clear: accept the loss of funds as an opportunity to explore your values and fight for principles in which you believe; if you do, this opportunity is worth far more than scholarship.
范例分析
论点 (Thesis statement)：applying for the Anna Todd Jennings scholarship furthers the racist ideas that were held by its founder.
论据 (Evidence)： factual evidence (the will of financier Stephen Girard)
论证方法 (Pattern) 1: deduction（演绎）
大前提 (Major premise): racism in any form is an evil that should be opposed.
小前提 (Minor premise): The Anna Todd Jennings scholarship is racist.
结论 (Conclusion): Therefore, the Anna Todd Jennings scholarship should be opposed
论证方法(Pattern) 2：induction (归纳)
论证方法(Pattern) 3：refutation (反驳)
这是一篇非常典型的论说文。第一段是引子，引出论点，接下去用演绎和归纳两种手法论证自己的观点，作者巧妙地用金融家Stephen Girard的遗嘱作为依据来结束第一个论证，使自己的观点更有说服力。接着再用归纳法论证，在第四、第五段中作者用了反驳手法，证明反方的第一个论点“if we do not take that money and use our education to topple the barriers of prejudice, we are giving the money to those who will use the money in the opposite fashion.”有逻辑错误，第二个论点“a number of other restricted scholarships are available at the school and no one seems to question them”是谬论。这样，整篇文章脉络清晰，逻辑性强，很有说服力。
几点建议
如何写论说段落
1. 论点必须鲜明，不能含糊。从某种角度說，鲜明的论点是一篇论文成功的最重要的标志之一。在开始学写论说文时，最好把论点放在开头，因为这样做能达到开宗明义、开门见山的效果，也为后面的论述创造条件。
2. 要有充分的证据。有了鲜明的观点，接下来重要的问题是怎么展开论述。也就是围绕中心论点，怎么运用最有说服力的论据，使它和自己的观点相统一，证明自己的观点是正确的。如范例1 中的数据、范例2中的实例。如果你要说服别人相信一个观点，应该选用重要性顺序，把最好和最有力的理由放在能使读者最容易牢记的地方——段末。当然，如果你为了增加观点的可信度而使用不相关的数据，即使这些数据是真实的，也会引起误解。
3. 要运用适当的论证方法。有说服力的论说文除了具有充分、确凿的论据之外，还要运用适当的论证方法证明文章的论点。常用的论证方法有演绎、归纳、例证、反证、列举、类比、对比等。如范例1、2.
学生写作实例
The first draft
How should we read? Should we read selectively or extensively? Everyone has his own view.
Some people think that reading selectively is a good way. They believe that good books are as many as bad books. Those good books can give us pleasure and knowledge, while bad books can only lead us to the wrong way. So they suggest that we should only choose the good books to read and never touch the bad ones.
But some other people do not agree with them. They think that reading extensively is better, that one kind of books can only give us one aspect of knowledge. Even the best book only contains one field of information. So, they can easily come to the conclusion that “to know more, to read more.”
Who’s right? I think both have something right.
A revised version
How should we read? Should we read selectively or extensively? Everyone has his own view. Some people think it good to read selectively while others like to read extensively. I think both opinions are reasonable. The best way to read books is to read both selectively and extensively.
On the one hand, we should read selectively. As a person’s time is limited, no one can read all the books in the world. Besides, not every book we get needs reading carefully. In our spare time, only those great books need to be carefully studied. Others, such as popular novels, magazines can be “swallowed”.
On the other hand, we must read extensively. We can get extensive knowledge by reading extensively. Those who read limitedly can’t have as much knowledge as those who read extensively. You can absorb all kind of knowledge from all kinds of books.
Believe me, friend, if you want to get more knowledge, read books selectively and extensively. The suggestion is really valuable.
学生写作实例分析
这个学生的初稿中自己的观点部分写得太少，而且有不少语言错误。修改稿调整了结构，分别用两段文字来阐述自己的观点，并且举例说明哪些书不用细读。当然，如果能举例说明哪些书该细读就更好。
想想练练
1. Fill in each blank with a proper word from the box above. Change the form where necessary.
address sound against strength effective
limitation refute weakness case anticipate
When gathering evidence, keep in mind that you cannot ignore arguments ____1____ your position. In fact, you should specifically ____2____ the most obvious---and sometimes the not-so-obvious- objections to your ____3____ . Try to ____4____ the objections that a reasonable person would have to your thesis. By directly addressing these objections in your essay, you will help convince readers that your arguments are ____5____. This part of an argument, called refutation, is essential to making the strongest case possible.
You can ____6____ opposing arguments by showing that they are unsound, unfair, or weak. Frequently, you will present contrasting evidence to show the ____7____ of your opponent’s points and to reinforce your own case. Careful use of definition and cause-and-effect analysis may also prove____8____.
When an opponent’s argument is so compelling that it cannot be easily dismissed, you should concede its ____9____. By acknowledging that a point is well taken, you reinforce the impression that you are a fair-minded person. If possible, identify the ____10____ of the opposing position and then move your argument to more solid ground. Often an opponent’s strong point addresses only facet of a multifaceted problem.
1.against, 2.address, 3.case, 4.anticipate, 5.sound, 6.refute, 7.weakness, 8.effective, 9.strength, 10.limitations
2. Read the following passage and identify the method used to develop the argument
On Etiquette
Etiquette to society is what clothing is to the individual. Without clothing, men would go in shameful nudity which would surely lead to the corruption of morals; and without etiquette, society would be in a pitiable state and the necessary intercourse between its members would be interfered with by needless offences and troubles. If society were a train, the etiquette would be the rails along which only the train could rumble forth; if society were a state coach, the etiquette would be the wheels and axis on which only the coach could roll forward. The lack of proprieties would make the most intimate friends turn to be the most decided enemies and the friendly or allied countries declare war against each other. We can find many examples in the history of mankind. Therefore I advise you to stand on ceremony before anyone else and to take pains not to do anything against etiquette lest you give offences to others or make enemies.
Patterns of development used: analogy
3. The following passage is a rough draft full of mistakes. Please mark them and insert proper corrections between the lines.
My view on job-hopping
Today somebody likes to do a job for ever; because they think they can do it better and better. They don’t like to change their job and fear they would not be fit it. Those persons usually try their best to do their jobs well, so that they can not out of job.
On the contrary, somebody likes to change their jobs constantly because they unlike to work in the same way. In fact, they are not satisfied with the job they do, and they want to get a better chance.
On my opinion, I think we must do the job which we like. Thus we are able to try our best and do it better. It is not important whether to change the job or not.
A revised version for reference:
My view on job-hopping
Nowadays, job-hopping has become popular among people, especially the young. As a result, there are heated discussions on the topic.
Many people are inclined to do one job in their lives. In their opinions, people who change jobs frequently are unreliable. They believe that the only way to success is to stick to one job, for constant practice in a professional field helps make an expert.
But there are many other people who don’t agree. They argue that change means progress. If you are not satisfied with your present job, you have the right to look for a better one. Every change is a step to further success. This may be the reason why some people change jobs frequently.
I think it reasonable to change your job if you have a better opportunity. But once you have found a position where you can fully display your ability, you’d better settle down and put your whole heart into it. Only in this way can you get the true joy of achieving your goal.
4. Collaborative activity for argumentation
Working with three other students, select a controversial topic that interests all of you. State your topic the way a topic is stated in a formal debate. Then, divide into two two-member teams, and decide which team will take the pro position and which will take the con. Each team should list the arguments on its side of the issue and then write two or three paragraphs summarizing its position. Finally, each group should stage a ten-minute debate----five minutes for each side---in front of the class.( the pro side presents its argument first.) At the end of each debate, the class should discuss which side has presents the stronger arguments.
5. Writing assignments for argumentation
Directions: Write an argumentative essay on one of the following topics
(1) Should high school students be required to take sex-education courses?
(2) By glorifying violence, certain films encourage violent behavior.
(3) One couple, one child policy should not be abolished
(4) Students should not be allowed to bring their cell phone into the classroom
(5) Death penalty should be more strictly controlled in China.
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